Aircraft Colors and Camouflage, US Army Air Force

 

Introduction to US color standards

The first color standard in use by the US armed forces was known as Specification No. 3-1, introduced on 28 November 1919 and including a palette of 24 colors of which only one would still be in use during World War II. The earliest standard in use by the US Army Air Corps (USAAC) before the war was Specification 14057 which dated from April 1931 and had been revised numerous times since, the latest being Specification 14057-C on 27 December 1939. An updated eight-color (later nine-color) palette was introduced shortly thereafter, in Air Corps Bulletin No. 41 dated 16 September 1940 and this would include all the main colors in use when the US Army Air Force (USAAF) replaced the USAAC in June 1941. Camouflage schemes would later be specified in the Technical Order No. 07-1-1 although in many cases these were applied in an ad hoc manner by commanders in the field. The US Navy (USN) had its own color system during the early years of World War II based around Bureau of Aeronautics (BuAer) Specification M-485 from 6 December 1940 which listed 6 (later 7) basic non-spectacular (matt) colors.

The need to unify color codes for the USAAF and USN (which used completely different camouflage schemes) resulted in the Army and Navy Aircraft (ANA) system, introduced on 28 September 1943. ANA Bulletin No. 157 included an initial palette of 19 mostly matt (plus a few semi-gloss) colors using a three-digit numbering system in the 600s. ANA Bulletin No. 166 added a further 15 gloss colors numbered in the 500s. A number of additional colors were later added for a total of 44. Notably, a few of these were gloss colors but were added to the 600s range. The ANA system also included numerous substitute colors for British colors, necessary in light of the large number of US aircraft provided to the Royal Air Force and Fleet Air Arm through Lend-Lease.

On 12 January 1950, the US published Federal Specification TT-C-595 which superseded the ANA system with a four-digit numbering system. This was short-lived and just a few years later was superseded by the Federal Standard system, formally known as FED-STD-595. Each color the palette is identified by a five-digit code. The first digit refers to the sheen of the paint, these being gloss (1), semi-gloss (2), and matt (3). The second digit refers to the color, these being brown (1), red (2), yellow (3), green (4), blue (5), gray (6), all others including whites, blacks, and metallics (7), and fluorescents (8). The last three digits are unique for each color and typically go from darker to lighter. The initial palette included 358 colors although some colors only officially exist in one or two out of the three sheens. Although the hues are identical regardless of sheen, there have been some notorious exceptions such as Olive Drab whose semi-gloss version used by the US Army on tanks (FS 24087) was different from the matt version used on helicopters (FS 34087), this being an error that took decades to correct.

The Federal Standard system has gone through numerous revisions, starting with FED-STD-595A in January 1968 (437 colors), FED-STD-595B in January 1994 (611 colors), and FED-STD-595C in January 2008 (650 colors). The ANA Bulletin 157/166 continued to be updated post-war as well, until 15 October 1964 when it was discontinued in favor of FED-STD-595. On February 17th, 2017, the Federal Standard system was replaced by the Aerospace Material Specification Standard 595, or AMS-STD-595. It is largely equivalent to the Federal Standard system and most existing colors have been carried over with identical numbers.

Contents:

• Main
  • Early War (1941-43)
  • Sea Search scheme (1941-45)
  • Mediterranean Theater (1942-43)
  • Northwest African Air Forces (1943)
  • Late War (1943-45)
  • Night Fighters (1943-45)
  • Photo-Reconnaisance (1942-45)
• Other
  • RAF equivalent schemes
  • Interiors
  • Cockpits
  • Color Tables

External Links:

• Army-Navy Aeronautical (ANA) Color Comparison w/Equivalents Table
• Urban's Colour Reference Charts, United States

References:

• Archer, Robert D. and Archer, Victor G., USAAF Aircraft Markings and Camouflage 1941-1947, Schiffer Publishing (1997)
• Bell, Dana, Air Force Colors Volume 1 1926-1942, Squadron/Signal Publications (1995)
• Bell, Dana, Air Force Colors Volume 2 ETO & MTO 1942-1945, Squadron/Signal Publications (1980)
• Elliot, John M., The Official Monogram US Navy & Marine Corps Aircraft Color Guide Vol 2 1940-1949, Monogram Aviation Publications (1989)

 

Paint guide basics:

All colors in this page include a paint chart with matches or equivalences from 19 different model paint ranges. Paints are considered matches if they are labeled with the intended color (either uniquely on together with another color). Paints are considered equivalences if they are close to the intended color but not labeled as such. The accuracy of any paint is independent of whether it is a match or an equivalence and these are described in the text (there can be poor matches and highly accurate equivalences). The following nomenclature is used in the paint tables and is based on matches or equivalences to US Insignia Red FS 11136:

 

* A single asterisk also denotes implicit matches for same-country standards where there is an official succession between standards. For example, H327* would match ANA 509 even if the label only references FS 11136 since ANA 509 is its official predecessor. This does not apply when there are considerable differences between successive paints (ex: Olive Drab No. 41/ANA 613/FS 34087) and this will be described in the text. By and large, however, single asterisk matches should be considered close enough to unique matches as to not be seriously questioned.

The paint charts make no distinction between gloss, semi-gloss, and matt variants of a color if the correct sheen is unavailable (ex: gloss FS 11136 will be a specific match for matt FS 31136 if the latter does not exist in the same paint range). Exceptions are made where there is a known or suspected color difference (ex: FS 24087 and 34087).

 

MAIN

Early War (1941-43)

At the beginning of World War II, all USAAF combat aircraft were painted with a standard pattern of Dark Olive Drab No. 41 (usually referred to simply as Olive Drab) over Neutral Grey No. 43. Optionally, the otherwise bland pattern could be disrupted with Medium Green No. 42 blotches usually on the edges of wings, vertical stabilizers, and fins and in widely irregular fashion. One of the biggest debates in World War II camouflage is the exact shade of OD 41, particularly since USAAF and Army versions were different, and USAAF versions changed over time, notably when the ANA system was implemented in 1943. It is generally accepted that OD 41 was an olive green when freshly painted but faded towards either a deeper dark green or, more commonly, into a dark tan. The differences in fading were caused by the fact that paint manufacturers used different pigments in order to match the official color chip. It also faded differently on fabric surfaces than on metal, hence why OD 41 aircraft often appeared with lighter flaps and other movable surfaces or in some cases, the reverse. Probably no other color in the history of military camouflage has shown more variety in color photos, and given that all drabs tend to hover close between appearing green or brown, very modest changes in lighting and saturation could also affect its perceived color.

Neutral Grey No. 43 is, thankfully, less controversial, and as the name implies is as close to a perfectly neutral gray as can be (its predecessor, Neutral Gray No. 32 on a 1939 specification had a Munsell value of 5N which under the 1929 notation meant a perfect neutral). It can also appear warmer or cooler depending on the photo, and also tended to look darker than it was due to the inevitable dirtying of the undersides. Medium Green No. 42 superseded the earlier Sea Green No. 28, moving towards a deeper green but still retaining a blueish hue. Although the intended effect of blotches was to disrupt the edges of aircraft, in practice it tended to fade much less than OD 41 and thus made the edges of aircraft stand out considerably more, particularly in black and white photos.

On 15 June 1943, Technical Order T.O. 07-1-1 specified various special and temporary finishes on USAAF aircraft that differed from the standard scheme. These involved replacing OD 41 for MG 42 on aircraft operating in predominatly green terrain and OD 41 for Sand No. 49 over desert terrain (see Mediterranean Theater section). NG 43 could also be replaced by Black No. 44 undersides for aircraft used at night. The Order also allowed the older colors from Specification 14057-C in place of the current ones. These were Sea Green No. 28 for MG 42, Sand No. 26 for Sand 49, and Black No. 33 for Black No. 44. A small number of USAAF bombers based in England in the summer of 1942 may have used MG 42 topsides but otherwise these special finishes were rare.

The following table shows the main colors used in the general and special schemes.

 

On 28 September 1943, the ANA system was implemented which superseded the older Bulletin No. 41 paints with new ANA equivalents (see Late War section). However, it is well known that most new USAAF aircraft would continue to be painted in OD 41 and NG 43 while existing stocks lasted, and these would have lasted even further in light that aircraft were ordered to be left unpainted barely a month after the ANA system came into force. Adding to the confusion is the fact that, briefly before the implementation of the ANA system, authorities temporarily switched to the so-called Olive Drab 319 which was a color used by the US Army Corps of Engineers and is also different from both OD 41 and ANA 613, being a slightly lighter brown. Despite being an Army color, it was likely used on a small number of aircraft in 1943.

Paint guide:

• Dark Olive Drab No. 41: A constant problem for modellers is the fact that many paint manufacturers simply produce one shade of wartime USAAF colors despite the changes that took place after the adoption of the ANA system. As such, any paint labelled simply US Olive Drab leaves itself open to interpretation. For OD 41 there is also the question of whether the aircraft in question is relatively new in theater and hence frenshly painted, or has been considerably exposed. Frankly, I am uneasy about offering recommendations on what OD 41 paint is most accurate and will therefore refrain from doing so; my personal preference among the main paint ranges is Gunze H78 (labelled as the US Army shade) which is neither too brown nor too green. Tamiya XF-62 is also quite dark and green but should be preferred as OD 41 than ANA 613 if one has to choose. Confusingly, Humbrol offers two different but identically-labelled ODs, 66 and 155, with the former being slightly greener and thus prefereable for OD 41. AK Real Colors has a handful of different OD paints of which their OD 41 (RC259) is excellent in my opinion, with an additional Army faded version (RC024) being a good option for contrasting areas like fabric surfaces.
• Neutral Gray No. 43: NG 43 is widely available in most ranges. It's closest match is FS 36173 (and to a lesser extent FS 36270) which is still slightly cooler than it should be. NG 43 does not have an ANA equivalent, with the color that superseded it (ANA 603) being considerably darker with a subtle blue tint.
• Medium Green No. 42: Because MG 42 was never a main fuselage color most paint manufacturers have avoided it. It was succeeded by ANA 612 and it is often compared to post-war FS 34092 which is widely available. However, there are sufficient differences between the two that it cannot be considered a true replacement (and hence is considered an equivalence rather than a match). Colourcoats and Mr. Paint are the only ranges that makes a separate MG 42 (MRP-140) to ANA 612/FS 34092.

Links:

• Shades of O.D. & Neutral Gray (David Rapasi)
• Question on U.S. WW II aircraft olive drab (FineScale Modeler)
• Question about olive drab shades/colors (Britmodeller)

 

Sea Search scheme

This was a variant of the basic early war scheme, and consisted of using Insignia White No. 46 undersides rather than Neutral Gray No. 43. IW 46 is off-white (or 'tinted' white) with a slight sepia-like tone. However, most photographs will be indistinghishable from a basic white, particularly at a distance. The Sea Seach scheme retained Olive Drab No. 41 as the topside color and when applicable, Medium Green No. 42 blotches. In contrast to the basic scheme, the demarcation point was higher on the fuselage sides (around halfway) in very pronounced waves, and the IW 46 would also extend into the fins resulting in a very simple but elegant camouflage pattern. This scheme was only applied on USAAF aircraft on anti-submarine duties.

Paint guide:

• Insignia White No. 46: All versions of Insignia White have had subtle changes after each new standard is introduced. IW 46 appears to have a slightly warm tint compared to the more ivory-like post-war FS 17875 which superseded it. Colourcoats is the only range to offer what appears to be a IW 46 match (ACUS10), abeled USN Non-Spectacular White, which is separate from its ANA successor. Mr. Paint has a specific ANA 601 match as well (MRP-135), which would be more appropriate than the post-war FS 17875.

 

Mediterranean Theater (1941-43)

USAAF aircraft that participated in the North Africa campaign had a bewildering array of camouflage patterns, using both US colors as well as approximations of RAF desert camouflage. The basic desert camouflage scheme was initially Sand No. 26 over Neutral Gray No. 43. Sand 26 was part of the older Specification 14057-C from 27 December 1939 and would have still been in use given that Air Corps Bulletin No. 41 did not include an equivalent Sand color. This changed on 1 October 1942 when Sand No. 49 was added the palette in Bulletin No. 41-A. The two Sands were noticeably different. Sand 26 was lighter and had a flesh-like hue. Both colors are closer to desert pinks than sand, but the few color photos available suggest that they faded into a more tan-like color. Aircraft participating in the Torch landings were almost certainly using Sand 26. Sand 49 probably found its way into combat aircraft late in the North African campaign, probably during the fighting in Tunisia as well as the fighting that followed in Sicily and southern Italy. The introduction of the ANA system in September 1943 resulted in Sand 49 being succeeded by Sand ANA 616. Lighter than Sand 49 (though not as much as No 26), it was noticeably less pink, being matched to post-war FS 30279. It is unlikely that it was used in anything more than a handful of aircraft (if at all) given that by then the fighting was moving into more temprate regions and most USAAF aircraft were being left in natural metal anyway.

USAAF aircraft were also known to carry a three-tone scheme which usually consisted of Dark Olive Drab No. 41 and Sand 26/49 over NG 43 in a pattern remniscient of RAF camouflage. RAF camouflage schemes were also known to be used on USAAF aircraft these being US equivalents or possibly field repaints from RAF stocks. Although Sand is most closely associated with the MTO, it was also used on some aircraft in the Pacific during the New Guinea campaign such as the P-40s of the 15th Fighter Group. However, it is believed that this was a completely different type of paint, being considerably lighter and intended to conceal aircraft against the white sands of the South Pacific. Undersides were probably white, although photographic evidence suggests that much more of the fuselage was painted sand relative to the normal demarcations. Some photos show NG 43 wheel caps which are further suggestive of the ad hoc nature of this scheme.

The Northwest African Air Forces (NAAF) sported temporary special schemes from March 1943 which are described in the following section.

Paint guide:

• Sand No. 26: The closest match would be FS 31433 which is, unfortunately, only available in Vallejo Model Color. Flesh equivalents are probably the closest insofar as they are not excessively pink or excessively light and are matched below in parenthesis with question marks.
• Sand No. 46: Although often taken as interchangeable with ANA 616, the latter would miss out on the original's pinkish hue. Lifecolor is also the only one to specifically make Sand No. 49, though it also matches FS 30279 (UA 089) which is a better approximation of ANA 616. A possible equivalent is RAF Gulf War Desert Pink which is both darker and pinker than FS 30279 and thus very close to what Sand 49 looked like when freshly painted. It is included as a close equivalent along with FS 31433, the proposed close equivalent, which is rare.
• Sand ANA 616: Most paints that are labelled as 'US Desert Sand' or something of the sort tend to match with FS 30279 which superseded ANA 616. Model Master and Mr. Paint offer the only unique ANA 616 matches but all matches for FS 30279 are taken as close equivalents in parenthesis.

Links:

• USAAF sand colour as used in North Africa (Britmodeller)
• Proper colors for P-40N Geronimo (Britmodeller)

 

Northwest African Air Forces (1943)

On 10 March 1943 a new order was given for the HQ Northwest African Air Forces introducing a number of new camouflage schemes using Army Corps of Engineers colors. It is believed that this responded to the beefed up Luftwaffe presence in Tunisia and its success in attacking US airbases during the Battle of the Kasserine Pass. The order called for a general topside camouflage scheme of Field Drab No. 303 and Olive Drab No. 319 (only if the aircraft was not painted in OD 41 already). FD 303 was similar to RAF Dark Earth and said to approximate FS 30118. OD 319 was somewhat in between OD 41 and the later ANA 613, resembling a dark olive brown. It does not match well with any FS color, the closest approximation being a darker and greener FS 34088. Undersides in the general scheme were a mix of Light Blue No. 307 and white in a 1:8 ratio.

The order also gave a number of special schemes to be used depending on the terrain type where the aircraft was based, these being red, yellow, green, and light sand, the latter having two versions depending on whether the terrain was all sand or spotted. These special schemes incorporated numerous other colors, mostly earthly tones, from the USACE palette. These additional colors along with their approximate FS numbers are Earth Brown No. 302 (FS 30099), Earth Red (FS 30117), Earth Yellow No. 312 (FS 30257), Sand No. 306 (FS 33448), and Light Green No. 321 (FS 34258). The order also provided various color drawings for the major combat aircraft types in use. However, the schemes defined for each aircraft type differed from those proposed under the general and special schemes. It is unclear (to me) whether these were intended to be the basic colors used for each aircraft or merely examples; the photos appear more consistent with the former especially since the basic scheme of FD 303/OD 319 would be nearly indistinguishable. In the event, it is believed that only A-20, B-25, and P-40 aircraft ever sported them, and in some cases like A-20, in widely different patterns.

The following table shows the main colors used in the general and special schemes.

The following table shows the main colors used across the different aircraft types according to the color drawings. These were notable for including non-USACE colors.

 

Paint guide:

• Olive Drab No. 319: Corps of Engineer colors are not widely available, with Olive Drab No. 319 being an exception given its use on US Army tanks but even so only Lifecolor and Model Master have them in their range. Colourcoats has a '1943 US Army Olive Drab' which might be a match.
• Sand No. 306: Sand is closest to FS 33448 which in turn is very similar to FS 33446, the CARC Tan used on modern US tank desert camouflage which is matched in parenthesis and question mark below.
• Others: Freshly painted, the Light Blue / White (1:8) mix would have been close to white, and even the lightest blue on the FS palette (FS 35550) would need to be lightened further. The Earth Yellow / Earth Red (1:1) mix is closest to FS 30215 with the Earth Yellow / Field Drab (2:1) mix being similar but with a slight olive hue. All other colors should be close to their FS approximations and can be found in a number of ranges given that they are similar to post-war MERDC colors. Light Green No. 321 is also close to Interior Green ANA 611.

Links:

• USAAF P-40F in the desert: camo scheme? (Britmodeller)

 

Late World War II (1943-45)

The United States adopted a joint USAAF/USN color system on 28 September 1943 with the publication of the Army-Navy Aeronautical Bulletin 157, this new system is popularly known as ANA. Almost all existing colors were replaced by their ANA versions, usually with some variation from their earlier version. Olive Drab ANA 613 was considerably different from its predecessor, Olive Drab 41, being slightly lighter and more brown. Neutral Gray 43 was abandoned altogether, it's replacement was a US approximation of RAF Ocean Grey known as Sea Gray ANA 603 which was considerably darker and with a hint of blue although far less than its post-war successor, FS 36118. Medium Green 42 also had a new equivalent in Medium Green ANA 612 which of the three colors was most similar to its predecessor but moving closer to a green-gray than a sea green. As mentioned earlier, both OD 41 and NG 43 continued to be used while stocks lasted which meant that most aircraft in the OD / NG scheme retained their older colors. However, a major change curred on 30 October 1943 when it was ordered to abandoned factory camouflage altogether, with all combat aircraft built from then retaining their natural metal finish (NMF) and existing planes having their paint removed during repairs or overhauls. The order was formalized in a revision to T.O. 07-1-1 on 26 December 1943. Olive Drab (or Medium Green) was retained as the color for anti-glare panels on unpainted aircraft. Exceptions to the rule were night fighters and transport aircraft, A-20 attack aircraft, as well as A-20, A-26, and B-25 aircraft used by the Far East Air Force (FEAF). A 3 March 1945 order (TI-2094 Add. No. 2) specified that those FAEF aircraft that retained camouflage were to use ANA 613/603 which means they are the only aircraft known to have definitively used the new colors, though sadly no color photographs exist.

Despite the new factory orders, field commanders were allowed to camouflage their aircraft at their discretion, which resulted in many aircraft retaining one or both of OD/NG. One common pattern was OD applied unevenly to the upper surfaces while the lower fuselage and sides were left in NMF, as was the case of the P-51s of the 361st Fighter Group. If stocks of OD were not available at UK airfields, then RAF Dark Green was used instead. Some units even discarded OD/NG altogether like the P-47s of the 56th Fighter Group whose 61st Squadron was painted in matt black (which faded to a dark blue or purple) over NMF, while its 63rd Squadron was painted in a pattern of indigo blue and sky blue over NMF. None of these were official US colors. Others in this group used the RAF Day Fighter Scheme of Ocean Grey / Dark Green with Medium Sea Grey undersides. The P-47s of the 78th Fighter Group was also known for its Dark Green topsides and Sky undersides.

From June 1944, D-Day invasion stripes were applied to nearly all Allied aircraft which participated in the landings. These consisted of three white stripes with two black stripes in between, all 18-inch in size for single-engine aircraft and 24-inch for twin-engined aircraft, and were placed in both the upper and lower wings as well as around the rear fuselage. The topside stripes were the first to be removed in the weeks after the invasion although underside fuselage and wing strips were still seen throughout the remainder of the year.

By and large, by this point in the war the Allies enjoyed air superiority to such an extent that camouflage became irrelevant, as evidenced by the gradually more colorful and flamboyant squadron markings seen on USAAF aircraft in 1944-45. Photographic evidence of aircraft unmistakably using ANA 613/603 remains elusive.

Paint guide:

• Olive Drab ANA 613: The use of older OD 41/NG 43 even after the ANA system was implemented makes it easy for modelers to use the same paints for any World War II aircraft which use the OD/NG scheme. This avoids the tricky issue of finding different shades for ANA 613/603 of which perhaps only a very small number were ever painted that way given the switch to NMF. Some of the newer paint ranges have specific ANA 613 and ANA 603 shades. There is still debate over the differences between ANA 613 and OD 41 but it is believed that the ANA version was slightly lighter and browner. Although FS matches vary, it is my belief that the closet one is FS 33070 which would be consistent with the fact that ANA 613 is a Munsell yellow. Gunze H52/C12, although simply specified as a USAAF color, is closer to ANA 613 than OD 41. Likewise, Humbrol 155 is browner than 66, both of which are simply labeled as Olive Drab.
• Sea Grey ANA 603: A far more obvious difference exists between ANA 603 and its predecessor, NG 43, with the new color being darker and lightly bluer. However, its close association with FS 36118 has led to the myth that it was just as blue where in fact it was much closer to neutral than the post-war color, and is probably closer to MAP Extra Dark Sea Grey. There is no specific match to ANA 603 in any paint range and I would argue in favor of EDSG rather than FS 36118 (although the latter is matched below in parenthesis).
• Medium Green ANA 612: Most matches for ANA 612 due so for the post-war FS 34092. Although the two colors are not strictly identical, the fact that they are only used for blotches means that strict accuracy is not exactly required compared to the other two main colors. It is said to harmonize well with ANA 613 but this could imply that it contrasts much less to the greener OD 41, which may explain why some late-war aircraft finished in OD 41 (such as P-40s in the CBI theater) show more subtle blotches.
• Aluminum: For NMF, aircraft in service were nowhere near as shiny as those seen in museums or air shows. I am personally a huge fan of decanted Tamiya AS-12 (a lacquer spray) for a wartime NMF finish given its semi-gloss appearance, as well as for its quick drying and forgiving nature compared to other metallic lacquers like Alcad. It is also worth noting that some NMF aircraft like the P-51 had aerodynamically important surfaces like its laminar-flow wing (minus the flaps) painted in aluminum lacquer that was noticeably duller than the rest of the airframe. Modelers can reproduce this by painting these areas matt or semi-matt aluminum.

Links:

• North American P-51D in detail

 

Night Fighters (1943-45)

The USAAF began equipping with night fighters like the P-61 as well as converted versions of the P-38 and A-20 (known as P-70) in the second half of the war. These were finished in the typical scheme of Olive Drab No. 41/ANA 613 over Neutral Gray No. 43/ANA 603 which was maintained even after the 30 October 1943 order of leaving most combat aircraft unpainted at the factory. Later, experiments were undertaken to provide a suitable gloss black paint for night operations which resulted in Jet ANA 622, which was only added to the ANA system on 26 April 1944 although it began to be used in January of that year. Despite being gloss, it was often applied without a primer (notably by Northrop which built the P-61) and tended to both fade and look matt after extensive use. It was not uncommon for many P-61s to paint their radomes Insignia White No. 46/ANA 601 and being of a different material than the fuselage, frequently showed different patterns of fading.

Paint guide:

• Insignia White ANA 601: Only Colourcoats (ACUS37) and Mr. Paint (MRP-135) have specific ANA 601 matches, but any match to post-war FS 17875 is close enough.
• Jet ANA 622: Despite being a gloss paint, ANA 622 should definitely look matt for an aircraft in combat. Mr. Paint is the only range which carries ANA 622 (MRP-137) but any lightened black or black/gray should suffice.

 

Photo-Reconnaissance (1942-45)

Shortly after the US entry into the war, the USAAF was approached by a Boston paint manufacturer known as Samuel Cabot with a proposal for a new white Haze paint that allegedly rendered aircraft close to invisible by means of the Tyndall Effect, the same light scattering effect that causes skies to appear blue. The effect on aircraft was achieved by using a black base and then spraying the haze paint in layers, building it up to produce sections of the aircraft that were lighter (such as the undersides) resulting in a mottled appearance. The USAAF was impressed and eventually adopted it on its F-4 and early F-5 Lightnings (photo-reconnaissance version of the P-38) from March 1942. Unfortunately, Haze tended to darken considerably in use, was extremely time-consuming to apply, and could not be applied at night either. As a result it was briefly discontinued between October and January of the following year. However, a revised version referred to as Synthetic Haze was developed shortly thereafter by Lockheed. Unlike the original, it was applied on a dark sky blue base and was also applied more uniformly giving the appearance of a single color. This became the standard color on the later F-5 Lightnings from March 1943. The closest equivalents to the intended color (known as 'Flight Blue') is FS 35190 and, to a lesser extent, ANA 501 (Light Blue). Given the brighter base color, it it likely that Synthetic Haze had a deeper appearance than its Haze predecessor.

Given that the new Synthetic Haze paint did not fully resolve some of the problems of the original in terms of its complex application, from around 1944 most USAAF photo-recon aircraft began painting their aircraft identically to their RAF counterparts using PRU Blue. This is a darker blue-gray compared to Synthetic Haze and would have been applied as a single color. The USAAF was also a major user of British photo-recon aircraft through Reverse Lend-Lease and these included PR versions of Spitfires and Mosquitoes which would have been factory-painted as such. It is likely that the switch to PRU Blue occurred mostly in Europe and the Mediterranean or in regions where there were available stocks of RAF paint.

Paint guide:

• Haze / Synthetic Haze: Xtracolor is the only paint range to carry Synthetic Haze and is matched to FS 15190. Barring equivalents to this FS color, Tamiya's XF-18 is too saturated for Intermediate Blue but could be more suitable for Synthetic Haze. Any generic deep sky blue fading into a sky blue underside should be good enough for Synthetic Haze, while a lighter less saturated blue would work best for Haze, fading towards white on the sides and undersides.
• PRU Blue: Discussed in the RAF page.

Links:

• Haze Paint Development

 

OTHER

RAF equivalent schemes

Upon the entry of the US into World War II, many USAAF aircraft were painted in approximations of RAF camouflage schemes. These included equivalents to the Temperate Land Scheme (Dark Earth/Dark Green) over Sky or the Desert Scheme (Middle Stone/Dark Earth) over Azure Blue. The aircraft most commonly associated with these patterns is the P-40, which was the main US fighter in service at the time of Pearl Harbor and which had already seen combat in the hands of the American Volunteer Group (the 'Flying Tigers') in China where they wore TLS colors. Many aircraft intended for lend-lease were also painted in RAF schemes only to be taken over by the USAAF after Pearl Harbor. It was also the case that many UK-based USAAF aircraft used actual RAF paints, most famously some units based at RAF Duxford (DG over Sky) and RAF Boxted (OG/DG over MSG). There was usually no attempt to replicate RAF patterns and as a result, USAAF patterns varied significantly between aircraft and could be highly irregular.

US equivalent paints initially followed DuPont standards intended to match RAF paints. Of the Temperate Land Scheme colors of Dark Earth (71-009) and Dark Green (71-013), the former was noticeably lighter although the latter was very close. They best match FS 30219 and FS 34096 respectively although FS 34079 has been suggested for Dark Green as well (it is very similar). Confusingly, a second variant of Dark Earth (71-035) came in use later and this was much darker, being closer to the RAF color and also fading less. It closely matches FS 30118. In contrast, Sky (71-021) has been a source of controversy. Although the DuPont standard closely resembles the RAF original, it is noticeably lighter and is closest to FS 35670 which is not a military color. The next nearest would be FS 35622 which happens to be known as a 'Duck Egg Blue' but is even lighter still. In color photographs, however, it frequently ends up resembling different types of gray, often a light tan grey (closest to FS 36622) as well as a sky gray which could reflect attempts to match Sky Grey rather than Sky Type S. To what extent this reflects an actually different paint shades or simply different color characteristics of the photo is up to debate: most color photos of US versions of Sky are in factory-fresh aircraft whereas most photos of RAF Sky are of aircraft in the field and thus dirtier. Furthermore, factory-fresh photos of RAF Sky are often of early Hurricanes and Spitfires which may have been painted Sky Blue, which in black and white appears lighter and would contrast more sharply with the topside colors just as the DuPont colors do.

As for the Desert Scheme, Middle Stone (71-069) was similar in brightness thus probably looking identical in black and white but lacked the mustard tone of its MAP counterpart. It is closest to FS 30266. When paired with the later Dark Earth (71-035) it would have had much greater contrast than the RAF originals or with 71-009. In contrast, Azure Blue (71-062) was very close to the RAF version aside from being a bit darker and has been matched with FS 35231.

Once the newer ANA colors were developed, US factories were ordered to use designated ANA equivalents instead of DuPont matches. In many cases, these varied significantly from their RAF colors. Although some colors like Dark Earth (71-035), Middle Stone, Sky, and Azure Blue received their own ANA successors, the colors used in the Day Fighter and Temperate Sea Scheme did not. Instead, both schemes used the same equivalents for their greens and grays, these being Olive Drab 613 (closest to FS 34088) and Sea Grey 603 (closest to FS 36118) respectively. While they were close enough to the TSS, they were far less of a match to the DFS: Olive Drab was too dark and too brown and Sea Grey was also too dark and lacked Ocean Grey's distinctive blue tint. Additonally, the US equivalent to Medium Sea Grey was ANA 602 Light Grey. This is often matched to FS 36440 but it is believed that it was somewhat darker but still unsuitable as an equivalent to Medium Sea Grey and was said to have been discontinued shortly after introduced in favor of ANA 621 Dark Gull Gray which was of similar brightness although still somewhat warmer. As with USAAF aircraft, it is likely that stocks of Olive Drab No. 41 were used before switching to ANA 613 which leads to the possibility that only few late-builds ever used it if at all.

A comparison between US and RAF paints is provide below with the disclaimer that Hex equivalents will never be fully accurate to an original paint chip. A more complete listing of all DuPont equivalents to RAF colors as well as additional photos (in RAF markings) is available in the RAF page.

 

Paint guide: The following paint chart includes only the US equivalents to the Temperate Land (plus Sky) and Desert (plus Azure Blue) schemes as those were the only two to have been used extensively before the ANA equivalent colors were designated. DuPont numbers are in the topmost header row. It should be noted that hardly any paint ranges (Mr. Paint being the sole exception as well as Colourcoats for Sky) carry DuPont/ANA-specific RAF paints, with most merely including them in the labels for convenience. Rather than merely repeat the matches for RAF paints from previous sections, the paint chart takes the closest FS equivalents mentioned in the text in parenthesis under the assumption that modelers will want to make their Lend-Lease models look sufficiently different from home-produced RAF aircraft, the exception being Azure Blue which is virtually identical.

• Sky (71-021 / ANA 610): Anyone wishing to replicate the tan grey seen on many color photos would be best served using the widely available FS 36622. Otherwise, the closest equivalent to the DuPont shade is FS 35622 which is a pale blue-green known for its Israeli Defence Force use. It is frequently labeled 'Duck Egg Blue' which, ironically, is the same name that was colloqually given to Sky Type S in Air Ministry Orders. Colourcoats is the only range to carry a specific US equivalent Sky (ACRN36) which it labels as a grey, so could be closer to the common photographic representation of the DuPont shade rather than the actual color chip. In contrast, ANA 610 was much closer to the original RAF Sky Type S and is matched to the post-war FS 34424. As a result, late war Lend-Lease aircraft (mostly Fleet Air Arm) can get away with using the RAF original (see Fleet Air Arm page). Hataka is the only range to carry a specific ANA 610 paint (HTK-_234) that is different from its Sky Type S paint (HTK-_026). For convenience, the paint chart includes ANA 610 / FS 34424 as matches and FS 35622 as close equivalents in parenthesis even if the former are available.
• Middle Stone (71-069 / ANA 615): The close equivalent is FS 30257 which is has only moderate availability, although Tamiya XF-59 (Desert Yellow) seems remarkably close. Beware of any ANA/RAF matches as they will likely be closer to the original and thus too mustard-like compared to the US version.
• Dark Earth (71-009): The close equivalent, FS 30219, is widely available and is included in parenthesis. It is usually labeled Sierra Tan and was a late addition to the ANA range (ANA 628).
• Dark Earth (71-035 / ANA 617): The close equivalent, FS 30118, is widely available and included in parenthesis. It is often labeled Field Drab. Mr. Paint includes a specific ANA 617 paint (MRP-145) in its range.
• Dark Green (71-013): The close equivalent, FS 34083, is relatively rare and so the similar and more widely available FS 34079 is included in parenthesis. Both FS colors are labeled forest greens, with the former being the air force and the latter the army versions. FS 34079 also has a late addition ANA predecessor (ANA 631).

Links:

• Flickr photo album of AVG P-40, lots of colour too (Britmodeller)
• WW2 US Colours on British Aircraft (Britmodeller)
• Curtis camouflage on A.V.G. Tomahawks

 

Interiors

The topic of US wartime interiors is highly complicated and in many cases remains speculative to this day. This is because there was considerable leeway with respect to individual manufacturers using their own standards which means that even the same aircraft built in different factories could have different interior colors. For the most part, US aircraft used the same basic corrosion-resistant primer known as Zinc Chromate which also became the default color for exposed interior spaces. The name of this primer referred to the main pigment used rather than the color which was a bright yellow with a greenish hue, hence why it was also referred to as Yellow Zinc Chromate. The exact tone of YZC varied slightly between manufacturers and it was never assigned a number on any color system. A second color was created by adding black enamel pigment to zinc chromate, producing what became known as Green Zinc Chromate (also called Tinted Zinc Chromate). This was used mostly on unexposed interior spaces, cockpits, as well as repainted parts that were previously covered only in YZC. Manufacturers often used different proportions of zinc chromate and lamp black in their mixes and as a result GZC varied even more in practice than YZC. Eventually, a standardized version of GZC was developed by the USN in late 1942 and became known as Interior Green (ANA 611 after the implementation of the ANA system on 28 September 1943). This was slightly darker and browner than the average GZC shade and later superseded by FS 34151 which was even browner still than the wartime shade.

There was much more variety among USAAF aircraft in terms of painting exposed interior spaces. Whereas most USN aircraft used the underside color, the USAAF typically left their wheel wells and covers in either YZC or GZC/IG and in some cases in aluminum lacquer. In many cases they were painted in a combination of these colors, for example, P-51Ds typically had Interior Green wheel wells and aluminum lacquer covers. Landing gear and wheel hubs also tended to be painted in aluminum lacquer although in some cases they were painted in the underside color of Neutral Gray No. 43 before the abandonment of camouflage after 30 October 1943. Other structural spaces such as bomb bays and (non-cockpit) crew compartments similarly varied by aircraft. For example, B-17 bomb bays and cabins were originally painted in GZC/IG but those on the B-24/25/26 were in aluminum lacquer (as were those on the later B-17G). Late-war practices persisted into the post-war period until interior colors became homogenized across all US military branches in 1955.

Paint guide:

• Yellow Zinc Chromate: YZC is not well represented among the traditional paint manufacturers although Tamiya's XF-4 (Yellow Green) is a surprisingly accurate match that will displease nobody despite its generic labeling. Gunze has released both yellow and green versions of this primer in a box set (now available individually).
• Green Zinc Chromate: Most paint ranges do not differentiate it with the slightly browner ANA 611 or give unspecific labels like 'US Interior Green' although for modeling purposes the difference should not be too problematic. AMMO by Mig's A.MIG-202 commits the triple sin of labeling itself as GZC, ANA 611, and FS 34151 which it appears closest to. AK Real Colors (RC264) is labeled Interior Green Yellow which suggests a GZC rather than ANA 611 match; AK's Air Series range, however, does include separate paints for each.
• Interior Green ANA 611: This is the most common match to any paint labeled 'US Interior Green' or such. Gunze's H58/C27 is excellent and probably the gold standard of how this color should look. Paints that intend to match FS 34151 will look too brown for a correct wartime shade.

Links:

• Interior Colours of US Aircraft, 1941-45

 

Cockpits

US cockpit colors in World War II are the subject of much controversy and speculation. The earliest guidelines for cockpit colors were provided on 9 September 1938 (Specification No. 98-24113-A) which laid out the practice that would be common on many USAAF aircraft and which was based around two colors. The first was Green Zinc Chromate (described in the text as 'Yellow Green') which was to be applied on aircraft with open cockpits or with sliding enclosures such as fighters and other single-engined aircraft. The second color was Bronze Green No. 9 which was to be applied on aircraft with closed cockpits which are part of the fuselage such as bombers and other large multi-engined aircraft. This was introduced as early as November 1919 (US Army Specification No. 3-1) and is a very dark olive green which can be compared to a black-green, although like most cockpit colors it would look considerably lighter in practice.

An ammendment to the specification was made on 6 September 1942 (Amendment No. 6). The guidelines retained Green Zinc Chromate for aircraft with open cockpits or with sliding enclosures. However, a new color known as Dull Dark Green (which had been introduced in USN service in April) replaced Bronze Green for aircraft with closed cockpits. There is considerable speculation regarding its exact color and is generally believed to a darker version of Medium Green No. 42/ANA 612/FS 34092 with more of a blueish hue. More problems arise from the fact that it looks vastly different on many aircraft, in some appearing as a turquoise-like blue-green. The color is much closer to that of actual aged bronze (think of old bronze artifacts and statues) which lends itself to even more confusion with Bronze Green. In late 1942, Green Zinc Chromate was standardized by the USN into the color that would be introduced on 28 September 1943 to the ANA palette as Interior Green ANA 611. This would thereafter become the de facto 'Yellow Green' as previously specified.

A final wartime revision of interior colors was issued on 6 April 1945 (Specification No. 98-24113-B) which had it that all cockpits and other enclosed areas (like turrets as well as bombardier and navigator stations) that were visible were to be painted Medium Green ANA 612 (which I personally suspect was intended to replace Dull Dark Green given its similarity). Areas of cockpits that were reflected in glass were to be painted in Black ANA 604. In practice this meant that the upper half of cockpits (usually from the level above the bottom of the instrument panel) were painted black. Just a few days before the end of the war, on 18 August 1945 an amendment to the previous specification formally established Interior Green ANA 611 as the replacement for 'Yellow Green'. Given the winding down of aircraft production in 1945 it is likely that very few aircraft were ever painted with ANA 612 cockpits.

Unfortunately for the sake of consistency, not all USAAF manufacturers followed the basic guidelines and in many cases created their own proprietary cockpit colors. For example, Curtiss Cockpit Green was developed by local paint vendors and is believed to be a more heavily tinted version of GZC which appeared slightly brown. Northrop Cockpit Green was another such shade, believed to be closer to the typical version of GZC. Early P-38s used Olive Drab cockpits. Finally, there is also some confusion over the colors used by Republic which are thought to be approximations of Bronze Green and (later) Dull Dark Green. Bell Green was a similar dark color, believed to be close to Medium Green. It was common for USAAF aircraft to be built in more than one factory which means more than one cockpit color could have been used.

A summary of the suspected main cockpit colors used on major USAAF aircraft is as follows. All post-war aircraft used Interior Green and Black or overall Black cockpits:

• P-38 Lightning: Olive Drab (P-38E, F-4), Green Zinc Chromate/Interior Green (P-38F and later)
• P-39 Airacobra: Bell Green (All versions)
• P-40 Warhawk: Curtiss Cockpit Green (All versions)
• P-47 Thunderbolt: Republic Bronze Green (P-47C, Razorback P-47D); Republic Dull Dark Green (Bubbletop P-47D/M/N)
• P-51 Mustang: DuPont Gray Green 71-036 (P-51A), Dull Dark Green (P-51B), Interior Green (P-51D), Interior Green and Black (late P-51D/H)
• P-61 Black Widow: Northrop Cockpit Green (All versions)
• A-20 Havoc: Green Zinc Chromate/Interior Green (? color appears browner than usual)
• A-26 Invader: Interior Green (?)
• B-17 Flying Fortress: Bronze Green (B-17E and earlier); Dull Dark Green (B-17F/G)
• B-24 Liberator: Bronze Grean (B-24D); Dull Dark Green (B-24E and later)
• B-25 Mitchell: Bronze Green (B-25B/C/D); Dull Dark Green (B-25G and later)
• B-26 Marauder: Green Zinc Chromate/Interior Green (?)
• B-29 Superfortress: Dull Dark Green (All wartime versions)

Unlike exterior camouflage, vintage wartime-era color photos of cockpits are a rarity, which makes the problem of approximating the actual colors so much more difficult. Cockpit photos are also notoriously difficult to accurately assess given that colors tend to look lighter than they actually are. Furthermore, restored aircraft like those found in museums may have been repainted and the new color may not match the original. In conclusion, all information here is speculative and should not be taken as the final word on this controversial topic.

Paint guide:

• Bronze Green: Very few ranges (Colourcoats and Mr. Paint) offer specific matches for cockpit Bronze Green and Dull Dark Green that are specific to US interiors and given the controversy over their real shades, may or may not be accurate. For example, Mr. Paint's version of Bronze Green is bluer than its Dull Dark Green which is probably the opposite of what their real colors actually are. Various shades of Bronze Green are used by the British Army and are close in terms of hue to the cockpit color, with Deep Bronze Green being closer to the color chip though perhaps too dark for a model cockpit. There is also RAL 6031, known as both Bronzegrün and NATO Green, and is close enough. Otherwise, there is no FS color that is remotely similar to it although FS 34048 is often cited as the closest equivalent.
• Dull Dark Green: The fact that this color was never added to the ANA palette complicates matters as it makes it subject to interpretation. It is claimed to be closest to FS 34092 which is lighter but therefore suitable for a cockpit. However, many pictures of USAAF aircraft show a much bluer, turquoise-like hue. As a result, FS 34058 could seem more appropriate for this particular shade. AK Interactive's version of FS 34092 (in its Air Series) is too blue and is therefore an excellent choice for the bluer version.
• Curtiss Cockpit Green: Versions of Interior Green that approximate the browner post-war FS 34151 would be more suitable. For an even more pronounced brown look, then Nakajima Cockpit Color could be an acceptable substitute although it is debatable just how different from GZC this color was.
• Northrop Cockpit Green: Believed to be close enough to GZC/Interior Green.
• Bell Green: Believed to be close enough to Medium Green No. 42/ANA 612.
• Republic colors: Believed to be close enough to Bronze Green and Dull Dark Green.

Links:

• Bronze Green (Britmodeller)
• USAAC Interior Colors (ARC Discussion Forums)

 

Color Tables